Evocative Object Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Evocative Object - Research Proposal Example Constant suspense is a common trait that fearful people possess. There are many kinds of fear. These are namely fear of getting old, decision-making, career change, public speaking and many other kinds. Another very common source of fear is from superstition. A very common example of superstition is that of Friday the 13 of any month of the year. Previous researchers such as Dosey shows that Friday the 13th superstitions are rooted in ancient bad luck associations especially with the day Friday and the number 13 (119). There is also a biblical reference to 13 as an unlucky number. Judas, who was one of the apostles, betrayed Jesus and was said to have been the 13th guest during the Last Supper. This research will predominantly involve interaction with people since fear is something that is developed in people’s minds. The kinds of research designs to be employed in this research are Quantitative and Qualitative. According to Belinda in a Quantitative research design, the Descriptive Model would be most favorable since it describes phenomena as they exist (45). This model makes use of raw data for research. This data is collected through administering questionnaires, carrying out observations and interviews. The people to participate in the interviews will be sampled using Random Sampling techniques. This research may refer to research that relates to this current research to get good information from it. Based on the information collected from the research, evaluation and analysis shall be carried out. The results from the analysis shall be used to create patterns from which decisions will be made to state whether the research was successful or futile. Dr. Belinda Biscoe, presented an article that shows the different types of research designs that can be used in any research. They have been broken down such that the reader may understand the differences put into gathering of information for the

U.S vs. Nevada Constitutioons Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

U.S vs. Nevada Constitutioons - Term Paper Example This study would not only establish a comparison between Nevada and United States’ legislation but even conduct a proper analysis on legislative elements of Nevada. The major aim of any constitution is to exercise limit as well as allocate power to governmental authority. Limited government is another term used for constitutionalism. Recent advancements associated with constitutional system of Nevada shall also be incorporated in this particular study. American constitution is responsible for dividing power amongst various governmental components. The constitutional structure of Nevada comprises of major state government offices, a linkage between these offices, procedure for developing regulation and law, regulation of activities occurring across national borders, state representation to other nation and states, and departments focused on state citizen’s welfare. Nevada constitution is basically larger compared to federal constitution. Word count can be considered as most effective way to compare length of two constitutions. Constitutions are now available online and hence page count is highly dependent on font size, margins, font type, printer choice, etc. United States or Federal constitution has a word count of 7500, whereas, amendments, histories or notes comprised within Nevada Constitution accounts for 56,716 words. Length of the later constitution can be easily altered since amendment in it is easier. Federal consti tution has been amended only 27 times. On the other hand, constitutions which are drafted in later time period are much lengthier compared to others. Word count has been opted for as an ideal measure since page count changes at a rapid rate. Length of any constitutional system proclaims a significant meaning. Nevadan judges due to long constitution are not able to have broad discretion, which is deliberately exercised by federal judges due to short

Amazon's not so secret war on taxes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Amazon's not so secret war on taxes - Essay Example Amazon gains an advantage in the market but is that superior position justified on the basis of the fact that Amazon has the best strategy for dodging taxes as it is an online store while other big stores such as Barnes & Noble and Wal-Mart are traditional stores. Many of the businesspersons argue that a company’s superiority or success in the market can be recognized by the type and quality of products and services that they offer instead of their tax schemes. Amazon played a major role in preventing the law to be changed and used its power to argue to claims about taxes on internet purchases. The sales tax is an important consideration as there is a lot on question. The sales tax allows the state governments to collect a fair amount for infrastructure facilities, parks, schools, and streets, the big stores have their retail primacy at stake, and customers have their money and way of shopping at stake. But on the other hand, Amazon is most widely known for being customer frie ndly, affordable, crackling, and a reputed online store. Behind this is the truth of the struggling battler that stands firmly on its principle. However, the strong power and aggression of the other retail stores broke the tax avoidance scheme of Amazon and led the states to pass the Marketplace Fairness Act. Thus, with this act, all the efforts of Amazon to prevent the laws from changing ended in ultimate failure. Eventually, Amazon supported it too as it has physical existence in many of the states with their warehouses and had professionals working.

Educational Preparation in Nursing Essay Example for Free

Educational Preparation in Nursing Essay With a consistent change in modernizing medicine, along with the continuing advancement in technology, continuing education in nursing is essential for a variety of reasons. The nurse’s main concern is providing safe, efficient, and effective patient care with positive patient outcomes. This paper will examine the differences in competencies between nurses prepared at an associate-degree level versus a baccalaureate-degree level, in order to provide an evidenced-based understanding of the variation in the educational preparation of nurses. An associate-degree nursing program usually takes place over the course of a two year period, providing the nurse with the confidence in skills and knowledge to be placed in an entry-level position upon graduation. These types of programs focus on preparing nurses for care settings including community hospitals and long-term care facilities—and were traditionally designed to compensate for the nursing shortage. A bachelor-degree nursing program typically takes place over a period of four academic years; and is intended to prepare its graduates to practice nursing in leadership and management positions in a number of care settings (Creasia Friberg, 2011, pp 25-27). A bachelor-degree program in nursing provides a further understand of not only the scientific and clinical nursing education, but also a more in-depth overview of specialized skills including: critical thinking, decision-making, communication, leadership, case management, and health promotion (The Impact of Education on Nursing Practice, 2012, para. 1). The American Association of Colleges of Nursing describes evidenced-based recommendations that explain that in order to â€Å"respond to the demands of an evolving health care system and meet the changing needs of patients, nurses must achieve higher levels of education (Fact Sheet: Creating a More Highly Qualified Nursing Workforce, 2012, para. 5).† The professional nurse holding a baccalaureate-level degree is prepared for a broader role in patient care with a higher understanding of holistic treatment, community health, clinical research, and nursing leadership and management. The added course work provided in a baccalaureate program is designed to prepare the nurse for a broader scope of practice and a better understand of issues that affect patients and their health care, including: cultural, economic, political, and social issues. â€Å"Nurses with Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) degrees are well-prepared to meet the demands placed on todays nurse (The Impact of Ed ucation on Nursing Practice, 2012, para 1).† Patient outcome are the principal for continuing education. The level of educational preparation required by a baccalaureate-degree nurse allows for more equip decision-making in approach to patient care situations. According to the American Association of Colleges of Nursing, In the October 2012 edition of Medical Care researchers from the University of Pennsylvania found that surgical patients in Magnet hospitals had 14% lower odds of inpatient death within 30 days and 12% lower odds of failure-to-rescue compared with patients cared for in non-Magnet hospitals. The study authors conclude that these better outcomes were attributed in large part to investments in highly qualified and educated nurses, including a higher proportion of baccalaureate prepared nurses. (Fact Sheet: Creating a More Highly Qualified Nursing Workforce, 2012, para. 9) With â€Å"Magnet† indicating a higher portion of baccalaureate nursing staff, it is determined that the nurse prepared at a bachelore-degree level is better prepared to approach a patient care situation with the capability of taking immediate action to provide better patient outcomes, than that of a nurse prepared at the associate-degree level. This goes to show that higher education has a strong impact on nursing practice. According to the American Association of Colleges of Nursing, a better educated nursing workforce will improve patient safety and enhance nursing care, decreasing mortality rate—as there is a significant correlation between nurses educated at a bachelor-degree level and lower patient death rates (Fact Sheet: Creating a More Highly Qualified Nursing Workforce, 2012). Through this research it is apparent that there is a significant connection between patient health care outcomes and the educational preparation of nurses. It is now established that the nurse prepared at a baccalaureate level is more readily capable of caring for critically ill patients; working in situations requiring critical thinking, leadership, and decision-making; and also taking roles in clinical aspects relevant to non-hospital settings. â€Å"Researchers have identified improved patient safety and lower rates of patient morbidity and mortality; lower levels of medication errors and procedural violations; and fewer disciplinary actions for BSNs (Altmann, 2012, para 4).† The need to continue education in nursing is on-going in order to continue to keep up with the changes in technology, advances in medicine, and to provide the best patient care. The Grand Canyon University Philosophy for nursing education explains: Baccalaureate nursing practice incorporates the roles of assessing, critical thinking, communicating, providing care, teaching, and leading. The caring professional approach includes the values of autonomy, altruism, human dignity, integrity and social justice with unconditional regard for all people. Nursing practice includes health promotion, disease prevention, early detection of health deviations, prompt and adequate treatment of the human response to acute and chronic illness, and compassionate care for those experiencing death. (Philosophy, n.d., para. 8) It is essential to maintain competency in nursing practice through the pursuit of continuing education. The difference between educational levels involves clinical competencies in a variety of settings, decision-making skills, leadership roles, job opportunities, and most importantly overall patient outcomes. In order to provide the best care for patients, a higher education, and continuing increase in knowledge is essential. References Altmann, T. K. (2012). Nurses attitudes toward continuing formal education: A comparison by level of education and geography. Nursing Education Perspectives, 33(2), 80-4. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1009642651?accountid=7374 Creasia, J. L., Friberg, E. (2011). Conceptual Foundations: The Bridge to Professional Nursing Practice [5] (VitalSource Bookshelf), Retrieved from http://pageburstls.elsevier.com/books/978-0-323-06869-7/id/B9780323068697100029_p0150 Fact sheet: Creating a more highly qualified nursing workforce. (2012, October 24). Retrieved November 8, 2012, from American Association of Colleges of Nursing:

Castle Life in Medieval Times

Castle Life in Medieval Times The Medieval Times was an extremely rough era for many people. The people in Medieval Europe had to work outrageously hard. Those that were considered to be common people of this time lived in very poor housing with little to no luxuries, and those of nobility lived in castles. While castle life is believed to be extremely luxurious, residing in a castle during Medieval Times was very difficult. Castles have been a dominant symbol of the Medieval Era for many years and have been used throughout history, from the Roman forts to the complex structures in the 15th century (English 158). Castles were built on artificial hills surrounded by a moat. Those who built the castle would dig a ditch around where the castle would stand and put the dirt on it to make the artificial hill (Johnson 93). When castles were first built they were made mostly of wood (Castle Architecture). The reason for wood being mainly used in the construction of a castle was because wood was found easily in Europe, along with it being less expensive and easy to transport (Castles in the Middle Ages). The early castles also had layers of clay and stone, this was to ensure that castles were strong enough to hold up in a time of war (Johnson 93). However, castles soon were built with just stone because the wood was too flammable (Castle Architecture). Using stone actually worked out better because this made the castles stronger than before. However, it was harder to build the castles how they desired considering stone is less flexible than wood, and this dilemma resulted in the early castles being less elegant (Castles in the Middle Ages). Since stone is very strong, if the castle was to be damaged or destroyed the materials from the castle would be used to make a new castle or repair the current one (Castle Architecture). During the times of the Medieval Era, there were many changes in the way they did architecture to make castles stronger. Those who built the castles of the Medieval Time took the concept of arches from the Roman Empire and created a pointed arch to make the structure stronger. The change made the force of all the stones go down and out which locked the stones into place resulting in a very strong and beautiful castle, along with a strong foundation (Castles in the Middle Ages). When arriving to a castle, one would have to cross a moat and a drawbridge (Life in a Middle Ages Castle). Some moats were filled with water and others filled with spikes (Johnson 94). Upon crossing the drawbridge one would come to a door which had towers on both sides (Life in a Middle Ages Castle). Theses towers were used to watch for oncoming enemies or signs of rebellion, also these towers were used to shoot enemies that might be at the gate (Johnson 93). As one enters the castle the first sight would be the courtyard which is where those who live in the castle would be in times of war. Also, one would see the Great hall, the chapel, and the kitchens (Life in a Middle Ages Castle). The main part of the castle was the Great Hall (Thomas). This is where the Lord or King stayed when war was not present (Life in a Middle Ages Castle). The Great Hall was basically a big room with a loft ceiling. Sometimes the Hall was on the bottom floor, but for better security it was usually built on the second floor. This room was setup like a church will posts or pillars in rows supporting the roof. In order to get to the Great Hall on the second floor one would have to enter by using the outside staircase (Thomas). When under attack, the staircase would be removed to protect those in the castle (Johnson 93). Castles in the early part of the Medieval Era were very bulky and not pleasant for those who lived inside of the castle (Castles in the Middle Ages). The castle had small rooms, not including the Great Hall, heated only by fireplaces, and also had bad ventilation (Life in a Middle Ages Castle). Eventually, the heating by fireplaces improved greatly the fireplaces were struc tured to heat the wall so that it could then warm the room and the smoke could be carried out (Thomas). The kitchen was nothing extravagant, it was made originally with wood and the food was cooked by several fireplaces. If there was going to be a big feast, extra kitchens would be setup for that feast. Today we clean utensils in the kitchen; however, in the Medieval Era utensils were not cleaned in the kitchen but outside (Thomas). The Lord and his family slept at the upper end of the Great Hall. Each bedroom usually was separated by a piece of fabric (Thomas). The bedrooms of the Lord and his family were called solars (Johnson 97). Sometimes, the Lord and his wife would have separate solars. Their rooms would have peepholes in the wall decorations so they could see what was going on in other rooms (Thomas). The grown children of the Lord did not always get their own solars; a lot of times they had to share rooms with siblings, or even servants (Johnson 94). The main items in a solar would be a wooden framed bed with springs made of ropes or leather, a feather mattress, sheets, quilts, fur coverlets, and pillows. The bed had curtains that could be pulled back in the day and closed at night for privacy and for protection from the cold. The remaining furniture in the room was a chest, a wooden peg to hang clothes, and a couple of stools (Thomas). Castles had a central drawing point of water for washing and drinking on about every floor (Thomas). Most castles also had cisterns which would catch the rainfall (Johnson 97). The cisterns would be connected to pipes and carry the water to other floors. There were also many other pipes that would control the flow of water and carry off the waste water. People of those times would use wooden tubs surrounded by tents, for protection, and padded cloths for comfort. The bathroom was as close to the sleeping quarters as it could be. In other words, it was an opening in the wall where waste would escape from the castle wall and secrete into a river or moat (Thomas). Castles were not only homes for nobility, but it was also a defense mechanism against enemies (Life in a Medieval Castle: The Smells and Sights of Castle Life). During this time, it was also thought if an area did not have a castle, they were going to be defeated by their enemies. This pushed many areas to build castles (Coulson 31). The ideal location for a defensively strong castle was either on rocky ground, mountain passes, isolated peninsulas, lake islands, and hills (Castle Architecture). Wherever the castle was built, consideration was taken as to how the land would help defend the castle (Johnson 92). These castles were built in order to control territories and prevent people from taking over important parts of land (English 159). Also, they were built to protect the peasants and the economy. However, if the area was under attack, peasants were required to bring their animals and produce to the castle. In order for these things to be safe, it was also considered a payment for the communities protection (Johnson 92). The payment was somewhat deserved; it was very trying to live in a castle during times of war. Enemies would attempt to cut off water supply along with throwing things at the castle, such as, dead bodies. This would spread disease and force them to surrender (Medieval Life). While castles can be a place of protection, castles were considered to be home for many Lords and Kings. The Great Hall was where the Lord and his family would spend a large amount of time. This hall was a place where the family, along with those invited to the castle, enjoyed some of the things life had to offer like dancing, plays, poetry and many other things (Life in a Medieval Castle: The Smells and Sights of Castle Life). The Great Hall was also where meals were eaten. In the hall there was a large, oak, dining table and around the table were benches and stools where the guests would sit (Medieval Castle Life). The Lord and his family would be seated at the head of the table on a raised dais. This symbolized that they were above everyone else (Life in a Medieval Castle: The Smells and Sights of Castle Life). The dinners in the hall would usually be at five in the afternoon. It was a popular saying in the Middle Ages that to live to the age of 99 years old, you have to wake up a t five, dine at nine, have supper at five and go to bed at nine! (Medieval Castle Life). Other than the banquets that would be held in the castle, there was not much to do inside but play chess, listen to music or jokes from the jester. Outside of the castle people would usually, hunt for deer, bears, and wild boars, however, the main activities were weapons training and fighting, so they could be ready for battle. This was thought to be a great game (Life in a Middle Ages Castle). Living during Medieval Times was a lot harder than living in todays society. Although life in a castle may not have been the most difficult life during Medieval Times, it was still not as luxurious as it is pictured to be. Protecting the community was the job of the castle and the job of those that lived in the castle, which was why castle life was a very harsh life.

How Computer Mediated Communication Affect Students English Language Essay

How Computer Mediated Communication Affect Students English Language Essay There are many genres in computer-mediated communication which are e-mails, chat-groups and the World Wide Web, etc. CMC is one of the popular forms of written language nowadays. CMC also changes peoples way of thinking. The CMC discourse affects students writing competence in a certain extent. This research discovers the occurrence of CMC discourse in students writing and how CMC affects their writing competence. Chapter 1 Introduction Since the rapid development of Internet and mass media, people are more rely on using Internet and mass media to obtain information. (Flanagin and Metzger, 2000) Internet covers almost all the topic that people know that is an ocean of information. It is much more quickly searching information though the Internet than reading entire books or collections. People exchange data and communicate thought different genres of Internet devices. Internet seems become an inevitable part in education and communication. Many new formats of media appear, like online forum, instant message program, short message service (SMS), etc. Language maintains social relationship between people, which is a sub-filed of linguistics called sociolinguistics. When new formats of communication appear, language patterns also change to distinguish whether people belongs to the group or not. The wording students use in the Internet will be different from the formal ones. Scholars like Crystal (2001) called the use of computer for communication computer mediated communication (CMC). There are asynchronous (delay) communication tools and synchronous (real-time) communication tools in CMC. Electronic mail systems (e-mail), newsgroups and bulletin board system (BBS) are the examples of asynchronous communication tools; instant messaging systems, like MSN Messenger and QQ, are the example of synchronous communication tool. One of the major advantages of such synchronous CMC is to bring together geographically dispersed students, and add immediacy and increase motivation. Teachers are encouraged to use CMC in their teaching, but the impact of CMC which is affect students writing competence negatively, especially second language (L2) learners. Computer equipments are essential in L2 classroom, no matter which level the students are. Writing competence shows students comprehensive language ability. Most importantly, students use the computer as a learning tool and entertainment in their leisure time. Teachers cannot measure the negative effect that CMC language brings. As students may think that using CMC language is trendy and more fashionable, they tend to use the wording in the Internet and this writing style may affect their formal writing unconsciously. This research paper investigates how computer-mediated communication affects students writing competence at Beijing Normal University- Hong Kong Baptist University United International College (UIC). UIC is the first university that cooperated by Mainland China and Hong Kong. It is a new liberal arts college to serve China and the world. Chapter 2 Literature Review The previous chapter has a brief introduction on this research paper. According to Qin (2010), CMC is multi-dimensional and takes many forms synchronous (participants are on-line at the same time and interactions occur at the same time) or asynchronous (participants need not to be on-line at the same time). CMC can be one-to-one or many-to-many communication. Consider the following figure: Figure 1 CMC features From the Figure 1, there are main types of CMC. The forms of CMC may then be classified depending on they are synchronous or not and on the number of participants who are involved in the interactions. The full name of IRC is internet relay chat. According to Jarkko and Darren (1993) it is a protocol for real-time Internet text messaging (chat) or synchronous conferencing. It is mainly designed for group communication in discussion forums, called channels, but also allows one-to-one communication via private message as well as chat and data transfer. A MOO is a text-based online virtual reality system to which multiple users (players) are connected at the same time. (Rawn, James, 1995) CMC also characterized of the structures of interaction: one-to-one interaction, one-to-many interaction, and many-to-many interaction. (Qin, 2010) For example, Lee (2002) suggested that a mailing list like the Linguist List would be and example of one-to-many CMC system, where a message is oftern sent to an unknown group of recipients. According to Beauvois Eledge (1996), CMC is a channel for synchronous or asynchronous written exchanges which is an excellent facilitator of communication. Swaffar (1998) also said that CMC engages learner more frequently, students have greater confidence and enthusiasm in communicative process. December (1996) suggested a more comprehensive definition of CMC: Internet based, computer-mediated communication involves information exchange that takes place on the global, cooperative collection of networks using the TCP/ IP protocol suite and the client-server model for the data communication. Messages may undergo a range of time and distribution manipulations and encode a variety of media types. The resulting information content exchanged can involve a wide range of symbols people use for communication. Language in Computer-mediated Communication (CMC) mentioned that CMC means communication between humans using the medium of the computer like e-mail, World-Wide Web, chat rooms (Crystal, 2001). Mobile phone text messaging can also be seen as a variety of CMC, although it does not use a computer as such. CMC also claimed that there are several notable linguistic features of CMC, such as orthography, vocabulary, grammar, discourse and text, paralinguistics and graphics. CMC demonstrates a mixture of features drawn from prototypically spoken and prototypically written media. Since CMC text-type is more informal, spoken style of writing, students may get used to write the informal forms in their assignments. There is a relationship between CMC and writing competence. According to Wang, CMC has played its irreplaceable role in language teaching classroom especially in collaborative writing. It also brings new challenges on language teaching. Beauvois (1997) found that LAN (local area network) does not only improve the students writing but also their confidence and general ability to express them. However, LAN is based on the synchronously interaction, it is thus basically a type of oral language rather than formal writing, which according to Beauvois, may also result in better spoken language. The discourse characteristics that commonly use in CMC language are orthography, vocabulary, grammar, discourse and text and paralinguistics and graphics (Crystal,2001; Ooi, 2002). Orthography means the informal (phonetic) spelling, speed-writing (especially with mobile phones) and absence of capitalization (even with pronoun I and proper names). For example, do wot I did; thx 4 ur txt; ill be over later on in the day. (Crystal,2001; Ooi, 2002) Vocabulary means informal wording, use of injections and use of in-terms and abbreviations, like ROFL (rolling on the floor laughing), IMHO (in my humble opinion and LOL (laugh out loud). There are also formal abbreviations, for instances DNS (domain name system), BBS (bulletin board system and BBC (blind carbon copy). (Crystal,2001; Ooi, 2002) Grammar means telegraphic language and multiple coordination/ subordination in sequence. For example, Have forwarded the N e-mail. (Crystal,2001; Ooi, 2002) Discourse and text mean the use of interaction features (e.g. questions), stream of consciousness writing, message-comment structures in e-mail and hypertext. (Crystal,2001; Ooi, 2002) Paralinguistics and graphics mean spaced letters. Multiple letters, alternative markers for emphasis (!!!!!, $%^%$#), capitalization, little or excessive punctuation, emoticons (WOOOOOW, hahahaha). (Crystal,2001; Ooi, 2002) Research Question: How CMC language affects students writing competence? The next chapter outlines the methodology of data collection and analysis this research. Chapter 3 Methodology In the previous chapter, the literature review stated that there are different characters of computer mediated communication discourse, like lexicon, graphology and orthography. In this research, a quasi-experiment was used to investigate the possible characteristics of CMC in students writing. Achen (1986) stated that Quasi-experiments are something other than a random sample of the relevant population with random assignment to treatment and control groups. Although quasi-experiment is not a real experiment that can show the accurate result from control group and experimental group, it still has its necessity in this research. Achen (1986) pointed out that sue to randomization may be physically, economically or politically impossible and controlled field trials may be impossible, quasi-experiment is necessary used in research. Firstly, people sometimes cannot fully measure all the factors causing a result, so it is necessary to based on quasi-experimental evidence. Secondly, the assignment to experimental and control groups must be taken as fixed, and all hope of randomization abandoned. (Achen, 1986) Pretest and posttest are another methodology that used in this research, showing the relationship between students writing competence and computer-mediated communication discourse. Group TimeÆ’Â   Exp O X O Cnt O N O (O= observation or measure; X= treatment; N= no treatment) Firgure2: Pretest and Postest From Figure2 (Yan, 2012), if change from pre- to post-test for treatment group and not for control group (or not as much), change can be attributed to the treatment) assuming proper experimental controls) Teachers face difficulties in enhancing students writing competence, especially the vocabulary and grammar rules. New mass media, like mobile phones and the Internet, are used in communicate the messages through network and those media change the language style a lot for people to fit in the Internet needs. (Bennett, 2003) The Internet brings a huge freedom on writing for students (Liu, n.d.), students not only using CMC discourse in daily communication, but also in their works. Teachers take writing competence as the most seriously compare to other competence, however CMC discourse brings certain negative effect on students. (Liu, n.d.) According to Liu (n.d.), the Internet is a double edge sword. It brings a lot of convenience, but also traps those immature students. If students addicted on surfing the Net and chatting through different synchronic response tools (like ICQ, MSN), they neglect the classic readings since these readings are not as interesting as CMC discourse. Writing competence is not only including using correct grammar, right word choice, but also including the correct and healthy values that students express. It is an influential way to promote negative values through Internet. Students writing competence can not be improved if they keep influenced by CMC discourse. In the chapter of literature review, lexicon, graphology and orthography are the three main characters of CMC discourse. The research is based on these characters to analysis students writing competence when they start engaging with English CMC discourse. This research may help teacher to find out the relationship between writing and help them to figure out a balance between CMC discourse and writing competence. Some teachers may overuse the Internet in their teaching, and bring negative effects to their students. The findings of my study may also contribute to raising both teachers and students awareness of using computer mediated communication. 3.1 Background information of the targets There are eight targets in this research, who are all Year 1 students come from the major of Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL) in Beijing Normal University- Hong Kong Baptist University United International College (UIC). As the entrance requirements of English score is higher than other major in UIC, which requires 110 out of 150 in Chinas college entrance examination (Gaokao). All the targets scored the minimum marks in their English Gaokao, which illustrated their original English competence better than some other students in UIC. The researcher gives the subjects a list of selected CMC discourse that is commonly used in chat rooms, texting and BBS. (Appendix1) After they know CMC, they need to write a 100-word essay every week. There is not limitation on their writing topics. The whole experiment lasts about a month. This research also aims at helping them adapt a totally new learning environment which is using English as the medium of instruction. UIC is a liberal arts school and uses English as the medium of instruction. It is much difficult for TESL Year 1 students to adapt; due to there are many linguistics terms and higher requirements on writing competence. 3.2 Data collection The subjects were TESL Year 1 students who have little influence by the Internet, so the research finding will be more accurate. It is because the enclosed education system in China, students are not allowed to leave high schools except weekends. As the new and released, teacher is responsible for not only teaching but also for students personal safety. One of the researches said that the most effective ways to ensure students safety is not allowed them leave the campus without permission and abandon other extra curriculum activities. The only thing students can do in the campus is study hard so many of them do not have chance to surf the Net in Chinese, let alone English. There are eight participants joint this experiment. Both data from pre test and post test are also needed in the research. According to Dimitrov, and Rumrill (2003), pretest-posttest are widely used in behavioral research, which aim to comparing groups and/ or measuring changes from the experimental treatments. A quasi-experiment will be conducted because it is difficult to do a full experiment, since we cannot find a group of people who have never touch the Internet to be the control group. Also there are some other reasons that can affect students writing competence. Organize pretest-posttest control group design which allows researcher to control the variable of time and maturation. In most schools and classrooms, random selection is not possible. The groups of participants are nonequivalent, so their characteristics are different too. It is better to do quasi-experiment to avoid threat validity. Johnson (2008) mentioned that validity is the degree to which a thing measures what it reports to measure. 3.3 Data Coding Scheme and Instrumentation A coding scheme was created from the literature review of CMC language characteristics, which stating the categories of CMC. The scheme included three different levels; they are lexicon level, graphology level and orthography level. On the lexicon level, there are neologisms (new words), abbreviations (short forms), acronyms (formal short forms) and rebuses (combination with numbers and letters). (Crytal, 2001) On the graphology level, there are change words to numbers (use 1 instead of one) and punctuation (use more than one punctuation marks to express emotions). On the orthography level, there are paralinguistics cues (for example hahaha) The research is based on these characters to analysis students writing. There is a evaluate sheet (Appendix 3) that used to count how many times does these properties appear in students writings. Marking the maximum frequency of each properties exit in the writings, finding out the mean and standard deviation of the frequency are the ways to show the data. Mean has three related meanings in statistics, the arithmetic means of a sample, the expected value of a random variable and the mean of a probability distribution. (Feller, 1950) The mean on the evaluation sheet is the arithmetic mean, which is equal to the sum of the values divided by the number of values. (Feller, 1950) Standard deviation shows how much variation exists from the mean. A high standard deviation illustrates the data points spreading out over a large range of values; a low standard deviation illustrates the data points are very close to the mean. In other words, higher standard deviation the category has the more effect on that category from CMC discourse. 3.4 Data Analysis The research question explored how CMC discourse affected students writing competence. The subjects should write one free writing a week, and last a month (they should write four writings in total). There are no topic restricts, they can write any topic they like. The first step is to find out the actual CMC discourse occurrence in their first writing. Then giving subjects some selected CMC discourse, those words are commonly use in chat room, texting and BBS. Asking subjects to write a 100-word essay in the following four weeks, aim at observe how CMC affect writing competence. The aim of the writing is looking into are there any CMC discourse occur in their writing after the researcher give the material to them. Find out the relationship between CMC and students writing competence. Some of the subjects were interviewed in an informal way, like chatting through QQ (a famous synchronic chatting tool in China). The first step was reading and rereading students writings. During the reading and revising the metacommunicative vocabulary should be paid attention to, which indicated how CMC discourse affects their writing competence. According to Xia (2006), the metacommunicative vocabulary is the language that subjects used to talk about their language use in communication. For example, subjects used different short forms in their writing that stated out the importance of shorten their writing time. In their point of view, short forms are their metacommunication vocabulary. 3.5 Result After coding, all occurrences of CMC discourse have been calculated according to subjects writings. Each subject included one pretest writing and three posttest writings, in total was four. Due to it took time to wait for the effect; the quasi-experiment lasted about a month. Table 1 is the summary of frequencies of CMC discourse in subjects writings in week 1, which is the pretest. CMC Discourse Maximum Frequency Mean Standard Deviation Lexicon Level Neologisms 0 0 Abbreviations 6 0.75 2.12 Acronyms 1 0.125 0.35 Rebuses 0 0 Graphology Level Change words to numbers 0 0 Punctuation 0 0 Orthography Level Paralinguistic cues 1 0.125 0.35 Table 1: CMC Discourse in Subjects Writings in Week 1 (N=8) From Table 1, the highest maximum frequency was using abbreviations in one subjects writing. Neologisms, rebuses, change words to numbers and punctuation were not found in subjects writing. It was the subjects writing from Week 1. The result was not out of exception, since the eight subjects have no understanding about CMC discourse. In most of the writings from Week 1, there was no CMC discourse. Correspond with their past lifestyle that they said in informal interview through QQ that lived in an enclosed education system. CMC Discourse Maximum Frequency Mean Standard Deviation Lexicon Level Neologisms 0 0 Abbreviations 5 2.5 1.92 Acronyms 0 0 Rebuses 0 0 Graphology Level Change words to numbers 1 0.125 0.35 Punctuation 4 1 1.41 Orthography Level Paralinguistic cues 0 0 Table 2: CMC Discourse in Subjects Writings in Week 2 (N=8) From Table 2, the highest maximum frequency was using abbreviations in one subjects writing. Neologisms, acronyms, rebuses, punctuation and paralinguistic cues were not found in subjects writing. For the subjects, abbreviation is the easiest category to handle and reduce their time on dropping notes during the class. Therefore, the category of abbreviation has the maximum frequency in Week 2. CMC Discourse Maximum Frequency Mean Standard Deviation Lexicon Level Neologisms 0 0 Abbreviations 7 2.63 2.97 Acronyms 1 0.25 0.46 Rebuses 0 0 Graphology Level Change words to numbers 8 1 2.83 Punctuation 6 1.75 2.55 Orthography Level Paralinguistic cues 0 0 Table 3: CMC Discourse in Subjects Writings in Week 3 (N=8) From Table 3, the highest maximum frequency was changing words to numbers in one subjects writing. Neologisms, rebuses and paralinguistic cues were not found in subjects writing. In Week 3, the data has a little bit different with Week 2. The maximum frequency in subjects writings still was abbreviations. As mentioned in the literature review, abbreviations mean the informal short form, like BTW (by the way). Since using abbreviations can shorten their time in writing, the subjects preferred abbreviations. Some of the abbreviations are not on the list; they searched for extra abbreviations on themselves. CMC discourse was a totally new issue for the Year 1 students in TESL. CMC Discourse Maximum Frequency Mean Standard Deviation Lexicon Level Neologisms 0 0 Abbreviations 10 3.63 3.07 Acronyms 2 0.25 0.71 Rebuses 0 0 Graphology Level Change words to numbers 2 0.25 0.71 Punctuation 3 1.25 1.49 Orthography Level Paralinguistic cues 0 0 Table 4: CMC Discourse in Subjects Writings in Week 4 (N=8) From Table 4, the highest maximum frequency was using abbreviations in one subjects writing. Neologisms, rebuses and paralinguistic cues were not found in subjects writing. This was the last posttest writing for the subjects. The subjects adapted the formal writing style in their English class, so their writing became more academic than the first week. Some of them would create their own CMC discourses, which was not on the list that the researcher gave them. The subjects started to handle the rules of CMC discourse. The research question explored how CMC discourse affected students writing competence. This question is related to whether CMC discourse occurred in their writings. Analysis of the informal interview data discovered different ways that CMC discourse affected students writing competence, such as use abbreviation of everything in writing and peer pressure. Use abbreviation of everything in writing. Most of the subjects said that the most direct effect on CMC discourse was started to use abbreviation. Since when they were in high school, their English teacher told them to remember as much vocabulary as they can. If they recite more vocabulary than others, they had the advantage to enter university. Therefore, they had never experienced using abbreviation before, and surely did not understand the situation in UICspelling is not the most important issue in study. In UIC, students who could handle the academic knowledge and express their own constructive opinion would be success. Note dropping is one of the key elements to absorb academic knowledge through the lectures, so the category of abbreviation has been used at maximum frequency in three weeks out of four. There is a Chinese saying Once you form a habit, it becomes natural to you. All subjects realized the difference between CMC discourse and academic, however they cannot avoid of u sing CMC discourse when they write. They write their heart by their hands directly, without the second thought and double check before handed the writing in. One of the subjects explained the situation that using abbreviation in the writing, It seems that using abbreviation become my habit, no matter on writing drafts or drop notes. The short form of the words comes out naturally. Peer pressure is another reason cause CMC discourse affects students writing competence. The eight subjects in this research paper would communicate with each other, and discuss how much CMC discourse they used in the writing. They take this research as a competition in a certain extend. As the researcher interviewed them in informal way, the subjects showed a sense of competitiveness toward others. They thought that the one who could utilize CMC discourse well would be the winner in the competition they have imagine. One of the subjects said that I can lose my face on using CMC discourse. I can defeat the others, as my English is better than others. The data indicated that the effect of CMC discourse nearly became their writing habit. The data also figured out that peer pressure also affect the frequency of using CMC discourse. The most directly effect of CMC discourse in students writing competence was abbreviations, for instance using informal short forms, like govt. (government) and edu. (education). The next chapter will discuss some limitations of this research and suggest some ways to improve this research. Chapter 4 Discussion The research explored how CMC discourse affects students writing competence. According to the informal interview, CMC discourse had a big impact on their writings. The language transforms with the technology development and ways of thinking in different cultural stages. (Ong, 1967, 1982) According to Ong (1967), there are three stages in the development of cultures: oral-aural, script and electronic stage. All these stages showed the transformation of language. Ong noticed that when language transforms, it will change the way of thinking. Therefore, the ways of thinking changed were reflected in the use of language when people communicate to each other. CMC discourse, as a new format of communication, changes the way of thinking and traditional communication. Form the result of this research, the frequency of using abbreviation affects the subjects writing competence. Due the existence of CMC discourse brought a great impact in their thinking ways, which is a totally new concept to t he subjects. There are two controversial arguments in CMC; (i) CMC has brought negative effects and challenges to standard of language, which affect students writing competence indirectly; (ii) CMC existed as a new form of language and literacy. (Crystal, 2001) If one can handle both languages which use in daily life and standard language, this would be the best situation. No one would worry about how CMC affect students writing competence, but it is impossible for the one unacted on CMC. The problem is the gap between standard language and language change. New form of a language would be standardizing if most people evolving and changing the usage in this way. Due to the limitation of time and resources, this research may not reflect the true effect that CMC language brings to students writing. In their work, it was hard to examine precisely the effect of CMC language. Their original writing competence and English ability may also affect the performance in the writing. Different subjects have vary ability of absorb information, so some subjects may not accept new knowledge in a short period of time. As mentioned in the previous chapter, the English ability of the eight subjects is quite good when they enter UIC. Before they enter the university, they would have a three-month-holiday; most of them would not pay attention to the academic knowledge. Especially, languages, like English, Chinese, need an environment and time to improve. They need time to catch up the language skills and adapt to a difference learning environment. Using students writings may not get the precise result on how CMC affect their writing competence. The result would be more persuasive if comparing their free-style writing than academic writing, sees how much CMC exists in their works. Since the subjects know the researcher expect from them, they would pretend they have influenced by CMC. In the future research, students free writing would have more significant results on the research question. On the other hand, this research just focused on linguistics aspects. If it is possible, the research could include different aspects, like the level of meaning and social interaction. The research would be more all-rounded if there are different aspects. The research lasted about a month, which was too short for getting a persuasive result. If the research could last longer, maybe last for a semester, the result would be more convictive. In future study, the experiment should last longer to show more accurate result. The next chapter summaries findings reported in the thesis and discuss possible implications of this research. Chapter 5 Conclusion The previous chapter has discussed some limitations of this research and suggested some ways to improve this research. This section summarized the findings of this research. The research question is How CMC affect students writing competence in UIC. The tables in Chapter 3 shows the changes of use CMC before and after the subjects receive the list of CMC. The frequency of using CMC has increased obviously, especially in using abbreviations. Since using abbreviations in their note could shorten their time and easier for them to catch up what the teachers talking about during the lectures. There is a negative effect on students writing competence after they engage to CMC language. They can use those selected CMC to drop notes in the future. The ability of drop notes has enhanced. The research also found out that students English competence also affect their writing competence. Chapter 6 Reference Achen, C.H. (1986). The Statistical Analysis of Quasi-Experiments. London, England: University of California Press, Ltd. Beauvois MH. (1997). Technology-enhanced Language Learning. Lincoinwood, IL: National Textbook. Beauvois, M. Eledge, J. (1996). Personality types and megabytes: Student attitudes toward Computer -Mediated Communication (CMC) in the language classroom [J]. CALICO Journal, Vol.13(2-3) Bennett, W. L. (2003). New Media Power: The Internet and Global Activism. University of Washingto

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome :: essays research papers

Fetal alcohol syndrome The 1990s is witnessing the significant impact alcohol-related birth defects are having on our society. These birth defects are caused by maternal use of alcohol during pregnancy which are irreversible, yet preventable. The most severe outcome, fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), to the less easily diagnosed fetal alcohol effects (FAE). The incidence of FAS is estimated at .33 per 1,000 live births. The estimated incidence of FAE is three times that of FAS. With an annual cost of $76.4 million in the United States which only includes FAS, not FAE. The bulk of these costs are associated with mental retardation. It impacts the family, education system, health system and social services in general, as well as individual losses. FAS is considered the most common known cause of mental retardation in the Western World. For a positive diagnosis of FAS, in addition to a history of maternal alcohol use during pregnancy, each of the following three categories must be present: 1. slow growth before and after birth including weight, height and/or head circumference, 2. facial dysmorphology such as thin upper lip, flattened philtrum, and/or short openings between eyelids, and 3. damage to the central nervous system. Diagnosis can be difficult because many of the critical diagnostic features change with age. It is most difficult to diagnose in newborns and adults. Reaching an FAE diagnosis is even more difficult because only some of the symptoms are present, and possibly not as visible. This disorder cannot be detected by genetic testing because the damage is done after the baby is born. It is not known how much a pregnant woman can safely drink without damaging the fetus, although heavier drinking increases the likelihood of damage. Also, there does not seem to be any time during pregnancy when it is safe to drink. As a result, it is generally recommended that pregnant women abstain from drinking. Children born later to alcoholic mothers were at greater risk than older siblings. Another variable is the fact that drinking alcohol may not be the only risk-taking behavior of the mother. Poor nutrition, poor health, smoking, and other drug use may also contribute to poorer neonatal outcome. There is still a lot to be learned about how alcohol causes damage to the fetus, as well as the timing of exposure. Alcohol affects many organ systems, including the brain, which develops throughout all trimesters of pregnancy.